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Crafts
Crafts were one of the Jews' main occupations,
next to trade and credit activities. Religious laws about
ritual
slaughter and kosher food meant that only products made by
Jewish
craftsmen could be used. The ban on using linen thread to
sew woolen
clothing meant garments made by Christians could not be
used.
Jewish settlers who came to Poland from Western Europe
in the
twelfth century were well versed in a great number of crafts
(including
some rare ones), thanks to which they made an important
contribution to
the development of Polish cities and trade, though the lack
of a market
for luxury goods did not allow them to develop the most
highly
specialized of these fields.
The oldest privileges granted by Polish rulers allowed
Jews to
freely practice their trades. In the thirteenth century,
sources mention
Jewish minters who were making bracteates. Fifteenth century
sources
indicate that Jews were also engaged in specializations
unrelated to
religious laws, such as glaziery, working with bronze,
blacksmithing and
coopery.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, some crafts
became the
domain of Jewish artisans, such as goldsmithery. Both Jews
and
Christians bought the goods they produced.
Since Jewish artisans were competition for the Christian
craftsmen,
cities began limiting the privileges allowing Jews to
practice their
crafts freely.
The large number of Jewish tradesmen also meant
competition within
the Jewish community itself, and spurred the establishment
of Jewish
guilds in the early seventeenth century. In some towns, Jews
were
accepted into Christian guilds.
In the eighteenth century, crafts and trade were the
main sources of
livelihood for Jews in Poland. Many Jews were involved in
crafts
production in the following specializations: goldsmithery,
jewelry-making and watch-making, as well as tailoring,
furriery and
cap-making. They were also engaged in rare trades, such as
the making of
seals, dyeing, glaziery and printing. In the food-related
trades, Jews
dominated in baking, candy-making, butchering, and alcohol
production,
including breweries and distilleries.
(H.W./CM)
The partitioning powers restricted the Jews' choice of
profession,
particularly in the fields that were subject to state
monopoly, such as
the production of hard liquor and beer, and the milling of
grain. Jews
were also forbidden from having pharmacies and forming their
own
professional associations.
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Jews in the Russian partition could not be
employed outside their district of residence. It was made
difficult for
them to gain qualifications, and the Christian master
craftsmen in the
guilds as a rule did not take on Jewish apprentices. As a
result of
these restrictions, in the mid-nineteenth century the number
of Jewish
craftsmen fell, and increased again only after emancipation.
In the Russian partition, specializations related to
textiles and
clothing dominated, such as weaving, broadcloth
manufacturing, tanning,
tailoring, shoemaking, sewing undergarments, cap-making and
glove-making. Other related specializations also developed,
such as
soap-making, dying, thread-making and button-making. The
largest centers
of crafts and clothing manufacturing were in Lodz, Warsaw
and the
Bialystok district. Jews also produced candles, vinegar and
paper
packaging. In the services sector, they were engaged in
tinsmithery,
interior painting, carpentry and glaziery. In the food
sector, they
owned bakeries, breweries, and butcher shops specializing in
beef.
In Galicia, too, the greatest number of Jewish craftsmen
were
involved in the clothing industry. The most important Jewish
crafts were
silver- and goldsmithery, production of foodstuffs, wood
products and
alcoholic beverages. In the oil-producing region of western
Galicia,
Jews specialized in the manufacture of paraffin candles
(known as
"kosher").
Poland's independence did not fundamentally change the
structure of
Jewish crafts. Workshops destroyed during the First World
War reopened,
thanks to foreign aid (from Joint, for example) as well as
Jews' own
efforts. The high demand for clothing in the 1920's meant a
high
proportion of Jews continued to work in tailoring and
related
activities-detrimental to the overall development of the
Jewish economy.
As the demands of the internal market were met, incomes
began to
fall as the result of strong competition and the fact that
the Russian
market had been cut off. New technologies brought increased
competition
through machine knits, knitted undergarments and
factory-made shoes,
which took away the clientele of traditional workshops.
Many artisans, in an attempt to avoid bankruptcy,
limited their
number of employees or suspended operations. The new Polish
state did
not take steps to prevent their pauperization. As a result
of the
difficult economic situation and increasing competition from
Christian
artisans, fewer and fewer Jews were working in their
traditional
specializations, such as goldsmithery, jewelry-making and
watch-making,
or in services, such as interior painting and construction
carpentry.
They did, however, continue to dominate in the field of
furniture
making.
Jews played virtually no role in new specializations
that demanded
investments be made in technology, such as electrotechnics
and
automobile mechanics. The numerous Jews who owned
photography shops were
an exception. Most of the artisans were members of the old
professions
that did not require long periods of apprenticeship. An
example of this
were the artisans who continued producing paper products,
such as paper
packaging, envelopes, notebooks and stationery.
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The backwardness of Jewish crafts became
apparent when the 1934 legislation on industry become law.
Inspections
showed that 78% of Jewish bakeries in Warsaw did not have
mechanical
equipment, and 55% were located in cellars.
The economic crisis and boycott of Jewish-run businesses
instigated
by nationalist groups had devastating effects for the entire
Polish
economy. They also meant further impoverishment for Jewish
craftsmen and
contributed to higher unemployment in that sector.
Increasing numbers
of independent artisans were engaged in cottage industries
and illegal
production. Low incomes prevented them from investing in and
expanding
their businesses. Assistance from no-interest loans office
could be used
for the purchase of the documents allowing owners of
enterprises to
legally practice their trade. Jewish artisans also tried to
organize
self-help programs.
The Second World War put an end to attempts in the late
1930's to
reform the crafts sector, as well as searches for new
markets. During
the German occupation, many Jews were forced to work in
factories for
the Germans and for war aims. Beginning in 1941, German
firms
established workshops (szopy) that produced clothing,
upholstery,
furniture, brushes, metal goods and electrical products.
These were
usually equipped with stolen machines.
In the ghettos, people also engaged in underground
crafts and
cottage industries. In attics and cellars, they produced
clothing, soap,
thread, textiles, knitted materials, buttons and toys, for
example,
which were then smuggled to the "Aryan side". Services, such
as watch
repair, were also performed. The conditions for this illegal
work were
very difficult, and incomes low, but this was sometimes the
only way to
survive.
After the war, the Central Committee of Jews in Poland
began
creating production cooperatives with government aid and
donations from
Joint. These produced clothing, leather goods, food and
metal goods.
Some of the Jewish artisans (15.1% of all those employed in
1946) opened
small shoe-making, tailoring, millinery, and jewelry-making
shops.
After the Jewish cooperatives were liquidated in 1950, only
a small
group of private artisans remained active.
(G.Z./CM)
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